The
City of Halifax (1841-1996) was the capital of the province of
Nova Scotia, and the largest city in
Atlantic Canada. Halifax was also the
shire town of
Halifax County.
The
Town of Halifax was founded by the
British government under the direction of the
Board of Trade and Plantations under the command of
Governor Edward Cornwallis in
1749[1] After a protracted struggle between residents and the
Governor, the
City of Halifax was incorporated in
1841.
On
1 April 1996, the government of Nova Scotia dissolved the City of Halifax, and amalgamated the four municipalities within Halifax County and formed
Halifax Regional Municipality, a single-tier regional government covering that whole area.
Today the area of the former City of Halifax is now referred to as an unincorporated "provincial
metropolitan area" by the provincial government's place name website
[2] , and the area is considered as "Halifax Nova Scotia" as a valid place name for civic addressing along with the other 208 communities that make up the Halifax Regional Municipality
[3].
The area is now administered as two separate community planning areas by the regional government for development,
Halifax Peninsula and
Mainland Halifax. It forms a significant part of the
Halifax urban area.
History Chebucto did not have a sizable permanent
Acadian settlement, the closest being the settlements of
Minas (later Windsor) and Pizquid. French warships and fishing vessels, requiring shelter and a place to draw water, certainly visited the harbour. The territory, which included much of the present-day
Maritimes and
Gaspé Peninsula, passed from French to English and even Scottish hands several times. In the
1713 Treaty of Utrecht, Acadia was relinquished to England, however the boundaries of the ceasefire were imprecise, leaving England with what is today peninsular Nova Scotia, and France with control of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The colonial capital chosen was
Annapolis Royal. In
1717, France began a 20-year effort to build a large fortified seaport at
Louisbourg on present-day
Cape Breton Island which was intended as a naval base for protecting the entrance to the
Gulf of St. Lawrence and extensive fishing grounds on the
Grand Banks.
In
1745,
Fortress Louisbourg fell to a New England-led force. In
1746 Admiral Jean-Batiste, De Roye de la Rochefoucauld, Duc d'Enville, was dispatched by the King of France in command of a French Armada of 65 ships. He was dispatched to undermine the English position in the new world, specifically at Louisbourg, Annapolis Royal, and most likely the eastern seaboard of the Thirteen Colonies.
The fleet was to meet in Chebucto (Halifax Harbour) on British-held peninsular Nova Scotia after crossing the Atlantic, take water and proceed to Louisbourg. Unfortunately, two major storms kept the fleet at sea for over three months. Poor water and spoiled food further weakened the exhausted fleet, resulting in the death of at least 2,500 men, including Duc d'Anville himself, by the time it arrived at Chebucto. After a series of calamities the fleet returned to France, its mission unfulfilled. 1016 men were left behind, buried along the western shore of the Bedford Basin. The ghost of Duc d'Anville is said to haunt
George's Island, his original burial place, to this day.
Acadian period Between the
Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and 1749, no serious attempts were made by Great Britain to colonize Nova Scotia, aside from its presence at Annapolis Royal and infrequent sea and land patrols. The peninsula was dominated by Acadian residents and the need for a permanent settlement and British military presence on the central Atlantic coast of peninsular Nova Scotia was recognized, but it took the negotiated return of Fortress Louisbourg to France in 1748 to prod Britain into action. British
General Edward Cornwallis was dispatched by the Lords of Trade and Plantations to establish a city at Chebucto, on behalf of and at the expense of the Crown. Cornwallis sailed in command of 13 transports, a sloop of war, 1,176 settlers and their families.
Halifax was founded on
June 21,
1749 below a glacial
drumlin that would later be named
Citadel Hill. The outpost was named in honour of
George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, who was the
President of the British Board of Trade. Halifax was ideal for a military base, as it has what is claimed to be the second largest natural
harbour in the world (this is contested by many locations - see
largest harbours), and could be well protected with
batteries at
McNab's Island, the
North West Arm,
Point Pleasant,
George's Island and
York Redoubt. In its early years, Citadel Hill was used as a command and observation post, prior to changes in artillery which could range out into the harbour.
The town proved its worth as a military base in the Seven Years War as a counter to the French fortress
Louisbourg in Cape Breton. Halifax provided the base for the capture of Louisbourg in 1758 and operated as a major naval base for the remainder of the war. The
Sambro Island Lighthouse was constructed at the harbour entrance in 1758. A permanent Naval Yard was established in 1759. For much of this period in the early
1700s, Nova Scotia was considered a frontier posting for the British military, given the proximity to the border with French territory and potential for conflict; the local environment was also very inhospitable and many early settlers were ill-suited for the colony's virgin wilderness on the shores of Halifax Harbour. The original settlers, who were often discharged soldiers and sailors, left the colony for established cities such as New York and Boston or the lush plantations of the Virginias and Carolinas. However, the new city did attract New England merchants exploiting the near-by fisheries and English merchants such as Joshua Maugher who profitted greatly from both British miliary contracts and smuggling with the French at Louisbourg. The military threat to Nova Scotia was removed following British victory over France in the Seven Years War.
With the addition of remaining territories of the colony of Acadia, the enlarged British colony of Nova Scotia was mostly depopulated, following the
deportation of Acadian residents. In addition, Britain was unwilling to allow its residents to emigrate, this being at the dawn of their
Industrial Revolution, thus Nova Scotia was opened up settlement to "foreign
Protestants". The region, including its new capital of Halifax, saw a modest immigration boom comprising
Germans,
Dutch,
New Englanders, residents of
Martinique and many other areas. In addition to the surnames of many present-day residents of Halifax who are descended from these settlers, an enduring name in the city is the "Dutch Village Road", which led from the "Dutch Village", located in
Fairview.
English settlement Halifax's fortunes waxed and waned with the military needs of the
Empire. While it had quickly become the largest
Royal Navy base on the Atlantic coast and had hosted large numbers of British army regulars, the complete destruction of Louisbourg in
1760 removed the threat of French attack. Crown interest in Halifax was reduced, and most importantly, New England turned its eyes west, to the French territory now available due to the defeat of
Montcalm at the
Plains of Abraham. By the mid
1770s the town was feeling its first of many peacetime slumps.
The
American Revolutionary War was not at first uppermost in the minds of most residents of Halifax. The government did not have enough money to pay for oil for the
Sambro lighthouse. The militia was unable to maintain a guard, and was disbanded. Provisions were so scarce during the winter of
1775 that
Quebec had to send flour to feed the town. While Halifax was remote from the troubles in the rest of the American colonies, martial law was declared in November 1775 to combat lawlessness.
On
March 30,
1776,
General William Howe arrived, having been driven from Boston by rebel forces. He brought with him 200 officers, 3000 men, and over 4,000
loyalist refugees, and demanded housing and provisions for all. This was merely the beginning of Halifax's role in the war. Throughout the conflict, and for a considerable time afterwards, thousands more refugees, often 'in a destitute and helpless condition'
had arrived in Halifax or other ports in Nova Scotia. This would peak with the evacuation of New York, and continue until well after the formal conclusion of war in
1783. At the instigation of the newly-arrived Loyalists who desired greater local control, Britain subdivided Nova Scotia in
1784 with the creation of the colonies of
New Brunswick and
Cape Breton Island; this had the effect of considerably diluting Halifax's presence over the region.
During the American Revolution, Halifax became the staging point of many attacks on rebel-controlled areas in the
Thirteen Colonies, and was the city to which British forces from Boston and New York were sent after the over-running of those cities. After the War, tens of thousands of
United Empire Loyalists from the American Colonies flooded Halifax, and many of their descendants still reside in the city today.
Halifax was now the bastion of British strength on the East Coast of North America. Local merchants also took advantage of the exclusion of American trade to the British colonies in the Caribbean, beginning a long trade relationship with the West Indies. However, the most significant growth began with the beginning of what would become known as the
Napoleonic Wars. By
1794,
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, was sent to take command of Nova Scotia. Many of the cities forts were designed by him, and he left an indelible mark on the city in the form of many public buildings of Georgian architecture, and a dignified British feel to the city itself. It was during this time that Halifax truly became a city. Many landmarks and institutions were built during his tenure, from the
Town Clock on Citadel Hill to St. George's Round Church, fortifications in the Halifax Defence Complex were built up, businesses established, and the population boomed.
Though the Duke left in
1800, the city continued to experience considerable investment throughout the
Napoleonic Wars and
War of 1812. Although Halifax was never attacked during the war of 1812, due to the overwhelming military presence in the city, many Naval battles occurred just outside the harbour. Most dramatic was the victory of the Halifax-based British frigate
HMS Shannon which captured the American frigate
USS Chesapeake and brought her to Halifax as prize. As well, an invasion force which attacked Washington in 1813, and burned the Capitol and White House was sent from Halifax. Early in the War, an expedition under Lord Dalhousie left Halifax to capture the Area of Castine, Maine, which they held for the entirety of the war. The revenues which were taken from this invasion were used after the war to found
Dalhousie University which is today Halifax's largest university. The city also thrived in the War of 1812 on the large numbers of captured American ships and cargoes captured by the British navy and provincial privateers.
Saint Mary's University was founded in
1802, originally as an elementary school. Saint Mary's was upgraded to a college following the establishment of Dalhousie in
1818; both were initially located in the downtown central business district before relocating to the then-outskirts of the city in the south end near the
Northwest Arm. Separated by only few minutes walking distance, the two schools now enjoy a friendly rivalry.
Present day government landmarks such as Government House, built to house the governor, and
Province House, built to house the
House of Assembly, were both built during the city's boom during this wartime period.
In the peace after 1815, the city suffered an economic malaise for a few years, aggravated by the move of the Royal Naval yard to Bermuda in 1818. However the economy recovered in the next decade led by a very successful local merchant class. Powerful local entrepreneurs included steamship pioneer
Samuel Cunard and the banker
Enos Collins. During the
1800s Halifax became the birthplace of two of Canada's largest banks; local financial institutions included the
Halifax Banking Company,
Union Bank of Halifax,
People's Bank of Halifax,
Bank of Nova Scotia, and the
Merchants' Bank of Halifax, making the city one of the most important financial centres in colonial
British North America and later Canada until the beginning of the
20th century. This position was somewhat rivalled by neighbouring
Saint John, New Brunswick where that city's Princess Street laid claim to being the "Wall Street of Canada" during the city's economic hey-day in the mid-
19th century.
Having played a key role to maintain and expand British power in North America and elsewhere during the
18th century, Halifax played less dramatic roles in the consolidation of the British Empire during the
19th century. The harbour's defences were successively refortified with the latest artillery defences throughout the century to provide a secure base for British Empire forces. Nova Scotian and Maritimers were recruited through Halifax for the
Crimean War. The city boomed during the
American Civil War, mostly by supplying the wartime economy of the North but also by offering refuge and supplies to
Confederate blockade runners. The port also saw Canada's first overseas military deployment as a nation to aid the British Empire during the
Second Boer War.
The American Revolution and after Later considered a great Nova Scotian leader, and the father of responsible government in British North America, it was the cause of self government for the city of Halifax that began the political career of
Joseph Howe and would subsequently lead to this form of accountability being brought to colonial affairs for the colony of Nova Scotia. After election to the House of Assembly as leader of the Liberal party, one of his first acts was the incorporation of the City of Halifax in
1842, followed by the direct election of civic politicians by
Haligonians.
Halifax became a hotbed of political activism as the winds of responsible government swept British North America during the
1840s, following the rebellions against
oligarchies in the colonies of
Upper and
Lower Canada. The first instance of responsible government in the British Empire was achieved by the colony of Nova Scotia in January-February
1848 through the efforts of Howe. The leaders of the fight for responsible or self-government later took up the
Anti-Confederation fight, the movement that from
1868 to
1875 tried to take Nova Scotia out of
Confederation.
During the
1850s, Howe was a heavy promoter of
railway technology, having been a key instigator in the founding of the
Nova Scotia Railway, which ran from Richmond in the city's north end to the
Minas Basin at
Windsor and to
Truro and on to
Pictou on the
Northumberland Strait. In the
1870s Halifax became linked by rail to
Moncton and
Saint John through the
Intercolonial Railway and on into
Quebec and
New England, not to mention numerous rural areas in Nova Scotia.
The
American Civil War again saw much activity and prosperity in Halifax. Merchants in the city made huge profits selling supplies and arms to both sides of the conflict (see for example
Alexander Keith, Jr.), and Confederate ships often called on the port to take on supplies, and make repairs. One such ship, the
Tallahassee, became a legend in Halifax as it made a daring escape from Federal frigates heading to Halifax to capture it.
After the American Civil War, the five colonies which made up British North America,
Ontario,
Quebec,
Prince Edward Island,
Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick, held meetings to consider Uniting into a single country. This was due to a threat of annexation and invasion from the United States. Canadian Confederation became a reality in 1867, but received much resistance from the merchant classes of Halifax, and from many prominent Halifax politicians due to the fact that both Halifax and Nova Scotia were at the time very wealthy, held trading ties with Boston and New York which would be damaged, and did not see the need for the Colony to give up it's comparative independence. After confederation Halifax retained its British military garrison until British troops were replaced by the Canadian army in 1906. The British Royal Navy remained until 1910 when the newly created Canadian Navy took over the Naval Dockyard.
Incorporation, responsible government, railways and Confederation It was during
World War I that Halifax would truly come into its own as a world class port and naval facility. The strategic location of the port with its protective waters of
Bedford Basin sheltered
convoys from German
U-boat attack prior to heading into the open
Atlantic Ocean. Halifax's railway connections with the
Intercolonial Railway of Canada and its port facilities became vital to the British war effort during the First World War as Canada's industrial centres churned out material for the Western Front. In 1914, Halifax began playing a major role in the First World War, both as the departure point for Canadian Soldiers heading overseas, and as an assembly point for all convoys (a responsibility which would be placed on the city again during WW2).
World War I Main article: Halifax Explosion Halifax Explosion The city's economy slumped after the war, although reconstruction from the Halifax Explosion brought new housing and infrastructure as well as the establishment of the Halifax Shipyard. However, a tremendous drop in worldwide shipping following the war as well as the failure of regional industries in the 1920s brought hard-times to the city, further aggravated by the
Great Depression in 1929. One bright spot was the completion of Ocean Terminals in the city's south end, a large modern complex to trans-ship freight and passengers from steamships to railways.
Between the Wars Halifax played an even bigger role in the Allied naval war effort of
World War II. The only theatre of War to be commanded by a Canadian was the North Western Atlantic, commanded by the Admiral in Halifax. Halifax became a lifeline for preserving Britain during the Nazi onslaught of the
Battle of Britain and the
Battle of the Atlantic, the supplies helping to offset a threatened amphibious invasion by Germany. Many convoys assembled in
Bedford Basin to deliver supplies to troops in
Europe. The city's railway links fed large numbers of troopships building up Allied armies in Europe. The harbour became an essential base for Canadian, British and other Allied warships. Very much a front-line city, civilians lived with the fears of possible German raids or another accidental ammunition explosion. Well defended, the city was never attacked although some merchant ships and two small naval vessels were sunk at the outer approaches to the harbour. However, the sounds and sometimes the flames of these distant attacks fed wartime rumours, some of which linger to the present day of imaginary tales of
German U-Boats entering
Halifax Harbour. The city's housing, retail and public transit infrastructure, small and neglected after 20 years of prewar economic stagnation was severely stressed. Severe housing and recreational problems simmered all through the war and culminated in a large-scale riot by military personnel on VE Day in 1945.
World War II After World War Two, Halifax did not experience the postwar economic malaise it had so often experienced after previous wars. This was partially due to the
Cold War which required continued spending on a modern Canadian Navy. However, the city also benefitted from a more diverse economy and postwar growth in government services and education. The
1960s-
1990s saw less
suburban sprawl than in many comparable Canadian cities in the areas surrounding Halifax. This was partly as a result of local geographies and topography (Halifax is extremely hilly with exposed granite not conducive to construction), a weaker regional and local economy, and a smaller population base than, for example, central Canada or New England. There were also deliberate local government policies to limit not only suburban growth but also put some controls on growth in the central business district to address concerns from heritage advocates.
The late
1960s was a period of significant change and expansion of the city when surrounding areas of Halifax County were amalgamated into Halifax:
Rockingham,
Clayton Park,
Fairview,
Armdale, and
Spryfield were all added in
1969.
Halifax suffered the effects of short-sighted urban renewal plans in the 1960s and 70s with the loss of much of its heritage architecture and community fabric in large downtown developments such as the Scotia Square mall and office towers. However, a citizens protest movement limited further destructive plans such as a waterfront freeway which opened the way for a popular and successful revitalized waterfront. Selective height limits were also achieved to protect the views from Citadel Hill. However, municipal heritage protection has remained weak with only pockets of heritage buildings surviving in the downtown and constant pressure from developers for further demolition.
Another casulty during this period of expansion and urabn renewal was the Black community of
Africville which was demolished and its residents displaced to clear land for industrial use as well as for the
A. Murray MacKay Bridge. The repercussions continue to this day and a
2001 United Nations report has called for reparations be paid to the community's former residents.
Restrictions on development were relaxed somewhat during the
1990s, resulting in some suburban sprawl off the peninsula. Today the community of Halifax is more compact than most Canadian urban areas although expanses of suburban growth have occurred in neighbouring Dartmouth, Bedford and Sackville. One development in the late 1990s was the Bayers Lake Business Park, where warehouse style retailers were permitted to build in a suburban industrial park west of
Rockingham. This has become an important yet controversial centre of commerce for the city and the province as it used public infrastructure to subsidize multi-national retail chains and draw business from local downtown business. Much of this short-sighted subsidy was due to competition between Halifax, Bedford and Dartmouth to host these giant retail chains and this controversy helped lead the province to force amagamation as a way to end wasteful municipal rivalries. In the past few years, urban housing sprawl has even reached these industrial/retail parks as new blasting techniques permitted construction on the granite wilderness around the city. What was once a business park surrounded by forest and a highway on one side has become a large suburb with numerous new apartment buildings and condominiums. Some of this growth has been spurred by offshore oil and natural gas economic acitivity but much has been due to a population shift from rural Nova Scotian communities to the Halifax urban area. The new amalgamated city has attempted to manage this growth with a new master development plan.
Post-war During the
1990s, Halifax like many other Canadian cities,
amalgamated with its suburbs under a single municipal government. The provincial government had sought to reduce the number of municipal governments throughout the province as a cost-saving measure and created a task force in
1992 to pursue this rationalization.
In
1995, an
Act to Incorporate the Halifax Regional Municipality received
Royal Assent in the provincial legislature and the
Halifax Regional Municipality, or "HRM" (as it is commonly called) was created on
April 1,
1996. HRM is an amalgamation of all municipal governments in
Halifax County, these being the cities of Halifax and
Dartmouth, town of
Bedford, and Municipality of the County of Halifax).
Sable Island, being part of Halifax County, is also jurisdictionally part of HRM, despite being located 180 km offshore.
Although cities in other provinces affected by amalgamation retained their original names, the new municipality is often referred by its full name or the initials "HRM" especially in the media and by residents of areas outside of the former City of Halifax. However, communities outside of the former City of Halifax still retained their original placenames to avoid confusion with duplicate street names for emergency, postal and other services.
See also: List of mayors of Halifax, Nova Scotia Geography Neighbourhoods at Amalgamation Downtown Halifax North End Halifax West End, Halifax Quinpool district South End Halifax Spring Garden Colloquial neighbourhood names Armdale Bayer's Lake Beechwood Park Boulderwood Bridgeview Clayton Park Convoy Place Cowie Hill Fairmount Fairview Fernleigh Green Acres Hydrostone Jollimore Kent Park Leiblin Park Melville Cove Mulgrave Park Rockingham Sherwood Heights Sherwood Park Spryfield Thornhill Wedgewood Official neighbourhood names Africville Richmond Dutch Village Halifax "firsts" and other records Note 1: Thomas Raddall,
Warden of the North.
Note 2: Chapter 3: Dr. Thomas B. Akins,
History of Halifax City, p. 85.
Secular usage
Other works