Chiyoda is Japanese for "field of a thousand generations".
Chiyoda may refer to:
Chiyoda, Tokyo, a special ward in central Tokyo, Japan

• Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, a subway line in the Tokyo Metro system
  Chiyoda, Gunma, Japan
  Chiyoda, Hiroshima, Japan
  Chiyoda, Ibaraki, Japan
  Chiyoda, Saga, Japan
  Chiyoda (aircraft carrier)

Brenda Howard (December 24, 1946 – June 28, 2005) was a bisexual rights activist and sex-positive feminist, who was an important figure in the modern LGBT rights movement.

Biography
The next time someone asks you why LGBT Pride marches exist or why Gay Pride Month is June tell them "A bisexual woman named Brenda Howard thought it should be."
Only a handful of activists in the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender movement were there at Stonewall and never stopped.

San Diego Bay is a natural harbor adjacent to San Diego, California. It is 12 mi/19 km long, 1 mi/1.6 km–3 mi/4.8 km wide. The bay is bordered by the cities of San Diego, National City, Chula Vista, Imperial Beach and Coronado.
The western border of the bay is protected from the Pacific Ocean by a long, narrow strip of land called the Silver Strand. The northern end of the Silver Strand expands to become North Island, the location of Naval Air Station North Island (the home port of several aircraft carriers including the USS Ronald Reagan) and Coronado. Coronado is the site of the famous Hotel del Coronado. The U.S. Navy has two more facilities on the bay, Naval Station San Diego and Point Loma Naval Base at Ballast Point, which is a Nuclear Submarine base. The Coast Guard Air Station San Diego is across the bay from NAS North Island and the Federal Communications Commission maintains a monitoring station on the Silver Strand.
San Diego International Airport is also adjacent to the bay, across Harbor Drive from the Coast Guard Station. General Dynamics' National Steel and Shipbuilding Company (NASSCO), the only shipyard on the west coast capable of building and repairing large ocean-going vessels, is near the San Diego side of the graceful San Diego-Coronado Bay Bridge. The bay has two container ship facilities (one for refrigerated containers) and a cruise ship terminal.
Several museum ships call San Diego Bay home. These include the USS Midway, the largest aircraft carrier museum, and the Star of India, the oldest active ship.
The shallow southern end of the bay is used for evaporation ponds to extract salt from the sea water.
The Port of San Diego manages the harbor and administers the public lands adjacent to the bay, including the airport. It is a special government entity created by the state legislature and has its own tax base and police force.

This article is about the instrument as a whole. For a full description of the sound-producing mechanism, see Free reed aerophone.
An accordion is a musical instrument of the handheld bellows-driven free reed aerophone family, sometimes referred to as squeezeboxes.
The accordion is played by compression and expansion of a bellows, which generates air flow across reeds; a keyboard or buttons control which reeds receive air flow and therefore the tones produced.

Physical description
The accordion's basic form was invented in Berlin in 1822 by Friedrich Buschmann. The accordion is one of several European inventions of the early 19th century that used free reeds driven by a bellows; notable among them were:
An instrument called accordion was first patented in 1829 by Cyrill Demian in Vienna. Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments; it only had a left hand keyboard, with the right hand simply operating the bellows. One key feature for which Demian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key: one for each bellows direction (press, draw); this is called a bisonoric action.
At that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with "Kanzellen" (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that comtemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough to for travellers to take with them and use to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.
The musician Adolph Müller described a great variety of instruments in his 1833 "Schule für Accordion". At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.
Jeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and tone color, but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today.
Further innovations followed and continue to the present. Various keyboard systems have been developed, as well as voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves), with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance, and different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability.

The Aeoline, by German Bernhard Eschenbach (and his cousin, Caspar Schlimbach), 1810. It was a piano with an added aeoline register. Similar instruments were the Aeoline Harmonika and Physharmonika. Aeoline and Aura were first without bellows or keyboard.
The Hand Physhamonika, by Anton Haeckl, a hand type produced 1818 and patented in 1821.
The flutina, by Pichenot Jeune, ca. 1831.
The concertina, patented in two forms (perhaps independently): one by Carl Friedrich Uhlig, 1834 and the other by Sir Charles Wheatstone, of which examples were built after 1829, but no patent taken out until 1844. History
The manufacture of an accordion is not a completely automated process. In a sense, all accordions could be called handmade, since there is always some hand assembly of the small parts required. The general process involves making the individual parts, assembling the subsections, assembling the entire instrument, and final decorating and packaging. However, the best accordions are always hand-made, especially in the aspect of reeds; completely hand-made reeds have a far better tonal quality than even the best automatically-manufactured reeds. Some accordions have been modified by individuals striving to bring a more pure sound out of low-end instruments, such as the ones improved by Yutaka Usui, a Japanese-born craftsman.

Manufacturing process
The instrument was popularized in the United States by Count Guido Deiro who was the first piano accordionist to perform in Vaudeville.
Accordion is the main instrument in the musette style of ballroom music in France (a style now largely out of fashion) and in the 1950s chanson singing, which has a revival in the form of neo-realism.
Mexican Norteño music also relies heavily on the accordion. The instrument was introduced into Northern Mexico by German immigrants during the 19th century. Mexican bands like Ramón Ayala y sus Bravos del Norte, Los Tiranos Del Norte, Los Cachorros De Juan Villarreal, Los Huracanes Del Norte, Los Invasores De Nuevo Leon, and Los Cadetes De Linares have made very successful musical careers out of their lively riffs.
The accordion is an important instrument in Dutch folk music, and often the only melodious instrument when clog dancing. It is also significant in Scandinavian folk music, with notable performers including Finnish accordionist Maria Kalaniemi. Scandinavian-influenced British folk music has, in recent years, also featured accordionists such as Karen Tweed.
The accordion is commonly used as part of dance and ceilidh bands in English, Scottish and Irish traditions.
Accordion is also a central instrument in Zydeco from Cajun and African-American traditions in Louisiana in the United States, and in Polka, heard in Europe and North and South America. It is also widely used in 'ceilidh' dance music of Scotland and Ireland. The accordion gained popularity in the 1990s when Jaleel White portrayed an accordion-playing nerdy neighbor (Steve Urkel) on Family Matters. It is often seen as the epitome of the "uncool" instrument children are forced to learn by their parents in lieu of a different, "cooler" instrument such as the guitar; however four popular rock music acts, "Weird Al" Yankovic, They Might Be Giants, The Decemberists, and The Arcade Fire, incorporate the accordion in their distinctive sound.
In northeastern Brazil, the accordion, along with the triangle and the zabumba, is the main instrument used in forró, a traditional style usually played by trios. This genre features accordionists such as Sivuca, Dominguinhos and the "King of Baião", Luiz Gonzaga.
In Colombia, the instrument was first introduced by European immigrants and merchants mainly of German origin through the Antilles Islands in the early 20th Century, where local troubadours from the Caribbean Region used it as an instrument to accompany their sang messages. This form of music developed into the musical genre called Vallenato, representative of Colombia.
Argentina experienced an influx of Italian and German immigrants near the turn of the century, which is why the accordion is so common in tango music typical of the region.
It is also extremely widely used in Eastern Europe, especially in Klezmer music.
While the accordion is a versatile instrument and is widely played throughout the world, it is not universally respected, largely because of an incorrect assumption that it is only used for polka music. A representative jibe is one from Gary Larson, author of The Far Side, who drew a cartoon with the punchline "Welcome to heaven, here's your harp. / Welcome to hell, here's your accordion."
The accordion (Hangeul: 아코디언) is a very integral aspect of "Trot" music (Hangeul: 트로트) from North Korea and South Korea. Trot music was extremely popular in the first half of the twentieth century and it is still enjoyed by many older Koreans to this day. The accordion is often the only the instument present in a song routine. Trot music and the accordion have gained a very widespread revival in recent years in the wake of the popular singer, Jang Yoon Jeong (Hangeul: 장윤정)and her super-hit song "Oemana!" (Hangeul: 어마나!). [1]

Musical genres
On button accordions the melody-side keyboard consists of a series of buttons (rather than piano-style keys.) There exists a wide variation in keyboard systems, tuning, action and construction of these instruments.
Diatonic button accordions have a melody-side keyboard that is limited to the notes of diatonic scales in a small number of keys (sometimes only one). The bass side usually contains the principal chords of the instrument's key and the root notes of those chords.
Almost all diatonic button accordions (e.g.: melodeon) are bisonoric, meaning each button produces two notes: one when the bellows is compressed, another while it is expanded; a few instruments (e.g.: garmon') are unisonoric, with each button producing the same note regardless of bellows direction; still others have a combination of the two types of action: see Hybrids below.
A chromatic button accordion is a type of button accordion where the melody-side keyboard consists of uniform rows of buttons arranged so that the pitch increases chromatically along diagonals. The bass-side keyboard is usually the Stradella system, one of the various free-bass systems, or a converter system. Included among chromatic button accordions is the Russian bayan. Sometimes an instrument of this class is simply called a chromatic accordion, although other types, including the piano accordion, are fully chromatic as well. There can be 3 to 5 rows of treble buttons. In a 5 row chromatic, two additional rows repeat the first 2 rows to facilitate options in fingering. Chromatic button accordions are preferred by many classical music performers, since the treble keyboard with diagonally arranged buttons allows a greater range, and often far greater speed, than a piano keyboard configuration. There exists an accordion with 6 rows in the treble side. It is commonly played in Serbia and throughout former Yugoslavia. The rows are based on the B system. The natives refer to it as "dugmetara".
The Janko keyboard is used for the treble side of some accordions.
Various cultures have made their own versions of the accordion, adapted to suit their own music. Russia alone has several, including the bayan, Garmon', Livenka, and Saratovskaya Garmonika.

Button accordions
Various hybrids have been created between instruments of different keyboards and actions. Many remain curiosities, only a few have remained in use. Some notable examples are:

The Schrammel accordion, used in Viennese chamber music and Klezmer, which has the treble keyboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass keyboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion.
The schwyzerörgeli or Swiss organ, which has a (usually) 3-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement (actually a subset of the Stradella system), that travel parallel to the bellows motion.
The trikitixa of the Basque people has a 2-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass.
In Scotland, the favoured diatonic accordion is, paradoxically, the instrument known as the British Chromatic Accordion. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered to be the German manufactured "Shand Morino", produced by Hohner with the input of the late Sir Jimmy Shand. Hybrids
The Stradella Bass System uses rows of buttons arranged in a circle of fifths; this places the principal major chords of a key in three adjacent rows. Each row contains, in order: A major third (the "counter-bass" note), the root note, the major chord, the minor chord, the (dominant) seventh chord, and the diminished seventh chord.
All chord buttons sound 3 note chords. Early attempts to create 4 note seventh and diminished chords were hampered by mechanical difficulties. Consequently, modern Stradella systems drop the 5th from these two chords. This has the side benefit of making the preformed chords more versatile. For example, an augmented chord can be created by using the dominant seventh button and adding an augmented 5th from the piano keyboard or from one of the bass or counterbass buttons.
Depending on the price, size or origin of the instrument, some rows may be missing completely or in different positions. In most Russian layouts the diminished seventh chord row is moved by one button, so that the C diminished seventh chord is where the F diminished seventh chord would be in a standard Stradella layout; this is done in order to achieve a better reachability with the forefinger.

Stradella bass system

Common configurations
Free bass systems allow the player to construct their own chords as well as to play bass melodies in several octaves. There are various free bass systems in use; most consist of a rotated version or mirror image of one of the melody layouts used in chromatic button accordions. One notable exception is the Titano line of converter bass, which repeats the first two bass rows of the Stradella system one and two octaves higher moving outward from the bellows. New York's Dr William Schimmel, who composes and performs in many genres, is a leading exponent of this particular bass system and uses it extensively in tandem with the standard stradella system. In the United States, Julio Giulietti was the chief manufacturer and promoter of the free bass accordion that he called a "bassetti" accordion which was mass produced from the late 1950s onward. Giulietti accordions with free bass capability often had a "transformer" switch to go from standard pre-set chords to individual free bass notes.
Skillful use of the free bass system enabled the performance of classical piano music, rather than music arranged specifically for the accordion's standard chorded capability. Beginning in the 1960s, competitive performance on the accordion of classical piano compositions, by the great masters of music, occurred. Although never mainstreamed in the larger musical scene, this convergence with traditional classical music propelled young accordionists to an ultimate involvement with classical music heretofore not experienced.
Within the United States, several noted instrumentalists demonstrated the unique orchestral capabilities of the free bass accordion while performing at the nation's premier concert venues and encouraged contemporary composers to write for the instrument. Included among the leading orchestral artists was John Serry, Sr.- a noted concert accordionist, soloist, composer and arranger. Mr. Serry performed extensively in both symphonic orchestras and jazz ensembles as well as on live radio and television broadcasts. His refined poetic artistry gained recognition for the accordion among many prominent conductors and classical musicians of the twentieth century.
Recently Guy Klucevsek has built a reputation on combining folk styles with classical forms and makes extensive use of the free bass. In Europe today, free bass accordion performance has reached a very high level, especially in Finland, Denmark, Russia, Italy and Germany. It isn't uncommon for music conservatories in Europe to consider the free bass accordion an acceptable instrument for serious study.
Many modern and avant-garde composers (such as Sofia Gubaidulina, Mauricio Kagel, and Magnus Lindberg,) have written for the free bass accordion and the instrument is becoming more frequently integrated into new music chamber and improvisation groups.

Free bass systems

Accordion chords (file info) — play in browser (beta)

• Chords being played on an accordion — 145 KB
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  Squeezeboxes
  
  Roland Virtual Accordion Other free-reeds
  Players of the accordion include:
  Some musicians have a love-hate relationship with the accordion. Famous anti-accordion comments include: "A gentleman is a man who can play the piano accordion... and doesn't", "The best way to play the piano accordion is with a pen-knife" (attributed to Christy Moore) and "An instrument in harmony with the sentiments of the assassin" (From Ambrose Bierce's Devil's Dictionary).
  
  Polka stars Lawrence Welk, Angelo DiPippo, Myron Floren and Frankie Yankovic
  Rock parodist "Weird Al" Yankovic
  Venezuelan accordionist Roberto Ruscitti, Yann Tiersen
  Rock musicians Jason Webley, Bruce Hornsby, Rob Hyman of The Hooters, Joseph Byrd, John Linnell of They Might Be Giants, Dennis DeYoung of Styx, Danny Elfman of Oingo Boingo, Neil Cicierega of Lemon Demon, Billy Joel, Franz Nicolay of The World/Inferno Friendship Society, David Hidalgo of Los Lobos, Gabby La La, Michel Martin host of new NPR show Rough Cuts, Zach Condon of Beirut, Patrick Wolf, Tré Cool of Green Day, Rick Wright of Pink Floyd who used one on live versions of "Outside the Wall" with Pink Floyd in 1980 and 1981, Gary Brooker of Procol Harum , Keith Emerson, John Evan of Jethro Tull (band), Sheryl Crow, Ryan Jarman of The Cribs, and Sweet Jonny V (Arabella) of Analog Arts EnsembleJeremy Barnes of Neutral Milk Hotel fame plays accordion with many Eastern European melodies in his band, A Hawk and a Hacksaw.
  Zydeco musicians Stanley "Buckwheat" Dural of Buckwheat Zydeco, Clifton Chenier, John R. Capozello of jazz combo "The Blue Notes" and he played in US Air Force Band,
  Jaleel White's character Steve Urkel of Family Matters played the accordion.
  Members Régine Chassagne and Richard Reed Parry of the Montreal-based indie rock band Arcade Fire play the accordion in both live shows and on albums.
  Suzie Gagnon plays the accordion with Cirque du Soleil in the touring show Corteo, and previously (for 10 years) with their touring show Alegria.
  Martyn Jacques of The Tiger Lillies plays accordion in many of the London trio's pieces.
  Joshua Camp plays accordion in the group, One Ring Zero.
  Corn Mo plays accordion and keyboards. He plays with numerous bands including .357 Lover

Holy Willie's Prayer is a poem by Robert Burns. It was written in 1785 and first printed anonymously in an eight page pamphlet in 1799.
It is considered the greatest of all Burns' satirical poems, and one of the best ever satires by any poet.[1]
It is written in the Scots dialect, but is accessible to most modern English readers.

The story of the real Holy Willie

pet = huff
ane = one
a' = all
sic = such
sax = six
fashed = irked
yestreen = last night
maun = must
fou = drunk
kail = cabbage
splore = row
gear = wealth

Mitchells & Butlers plc (LSE: MAB) runs managed pubs, bars and restaurants in over 2,000 outlets. There headquarters are in Birmingham, England, UK and the company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.

History
Mitchells and Butlers now owns several brands of pubs, including Harvester, Sizzling Pub Co., Scream, Toby Carvery, Ember Inns, All Bar One, Browns, Flares, Reflex, O'Neill's and Goose. The company also owns Hollywood Bowl, which runs 25 ten pin bowling alleys around the UK. In July 2006 it purchased 239 pub restaurants from Whitbread for £497 million to strengthen its food business ahead of the introduction of a smoking ban in enclosed public spaces in England in 2007.
Other brands and concepts include: Vintage Inns, All Bar One, Harvester, Edwards, Bar Alex (Germany)

Adna Romanza Chaffee (April 14, 1842—November 1, 1914) was a General in the United States Army. Chaffee took part in the U.S. Civil War and Indian Wars, played a key role in the Spanish-American War, and was instrumental at crushing the Boxer Rebellion in China. He was the Army Chief of Staff from 1904 to 1906, overseeing far-reaching transformation of organization and doctrine in the Army. A historical marker[1] documenting Chaffee's birthplace stands in Orwell, Ohio.

Civil War
Chaffee decided to remain with the Army after the war. He was posted to the western frontier, and was promoted to Captain of Regulars in October 1867. For the next thirty years he served in the Indian Wars, fighting the Central Plains and Southwestern tribes. In 1868, he was brevetted Major for his actions at Paint Creek, Texas. In the following years he engaged the Indians many times, most notably at Red River, Texas in 1874, and Big Dry Wash, Arizona in 1882, for which he was brevetted Lieutenant Colonel. In July 1888 he was promoted to Major and transferred to the 9th Cavalry. From 1894 to 1896, he was an instructor of tactics at the Army's Infantry and Cavalry School at Fort Leavenworth. In June 1897 he was promoted to Colonel and transferred to the 3rd Cavalry, where he served as commandant of the Cavalry School at Fort Riley until 1898.

Nominations and awards

2001 - nominated Best Actor in a Leading Role - Before Night Falls Academy Awards

1994 - won Silver Seashell Best Actor - Días contados and El Detective y la muerte Donostia-San Sebastián International Film Festival

1998 - nominated Best Actor - Carne trémula
2002 - nominated Best Actor - Mondays In The Sun
2004 - won Best Actor - Mar adentro European Film Awards

2001 - nominated Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama - Before Night Falls
2005 - nominated Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama - Mar adentro Golden Globes

1993 - nominated Mejor Actor Principal - Best Lead Actor - Jamón, jamón
1994 - nominated Mejor Actor Principal - Best Lead Actor - Huevos de oro
1995 - won Mejor Actor de reparto - Best Supporting Actor - Días contados
1996 - won Mejor Actor Principal - Best Lead Actor - Boca a boca
1998 - nominated Mejor Actor Principal - Best Lead Actor - Carne trémula
2003 - won Mejor Actor Principal - Best Lead Actor - Los lunes al sol (Mondays In The Sun)
2005 - won Mejor Actor Principal - Best Lead Actor - Mar adentro Goya Awards

2001 - won Best Male Lead - Before Night Falls Independent Spirit Awards

2000 - won Volpi Cup Best Actor - Before Night Falls
2004 - won Volpi Cup Best Actor - Mar adentro Controversy

Jamón, jamón (1992)
Huevos de oro (1993)
El Amante Bilingüe (1993)
Mouth To Mouth (1996)
Live Flesh (1997)
Perdita Durango (1997)
Second Skin (2000)
Before Night Falls (2000)
Mondays In The Sun (2002)
Between Your Legs (2003)
The Dancer Upstairs (2003)
The Sea Inside (2004)
Collateral (2004)
Killing Pablo (2005)
Goya's Ghosts (2006)
No Country for Old Men(2007)
Love in the Time of Cholera (2007)
Guerrilla (2007)
Woody Allen Spanish Project (2007)

The term Ground Zero may be used to describe the point on the earth's surface where an explosion occurs. In the case of an explosion above the ground, Ground Zero refers to the point on the ground directly below explosion (see hypocenter).
The term has often been associated with nuclear explosions and other large bombs, but is also used in relation to earthquakes, epidemics and other disasters to mark the point of the most severe damage or destruction. Damage gradually decreases with distance from this point.

History of term
Relating to a specific event, the term was first used to refer to the devastation caused by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki [1].

World Trade Center
The term is often re-used for disasters that have a geographic or conceptual epicenter.

Timothy Ruggles (October 20, 1711 – August 4, 1795) was as an American military leader, jurist and politician. He was a delegate to the first Stamp Act congress of 1765.

Stamp Act
In 1775, he left Boston for Nova Scotia with the British troops and accompanied Lord Howe to Staten Island. His estates were confiscated, and in 1779 he received a grant of 10,000 acres (40 km²) of land in Wilmot, Nova Scotia, where he settled.
His daughter, Bathsheba Ruggles, married Joshua Spooner, whom she was convicted of murdering.

Manchester Town Hall is a building in Manchester, England that houses the city's government and administrative functions. Completed by architect Alfred Waterhouse in 1877, it is a fine example of Victorian Gothic revival, featuring imposing murals by Ford Madox Brown.
As filming is forbidden in the Palace of Westminster, Manchester Town Hall is frequently used as its "Body double" in British political dramatisations.
The Town Hall was listed as a Grade I listed building on February 25, 1952.

Manchester's original civic administration was housed in the Police Office in King Street. It was replaced by the first Town Hall, to accommodate the growing local government and its civic assembly rooms. The Town Hall, also located in King Street at the corner of Cross Street, was designed by Francis Goodwin and constructed during 1822-1825, much of it by David Bellhouse. The building was designed in the Grecian style and Goodwin was strongly influenced by his patron John Soane. As the size and wealth of the city grew, largely as a result of the textile industry, its administration outstripped the existing facilities and a new building was proposed. The King Street building was subsequently occupied by a lending library and then Lloyds Bank. The facade was removed to Heaton Park in 1912 when the current Lloyds TSB building was erected on the site (No 53 King Street).

The site chosen for a new town hall was an oddly shaped triangle and, of the 136 entries in open competition for the design, Waterhouse's exploited the constraints in the most practical and imaginative way. Despite its medieval styling, the building was designed to support the practical bureaucratic technologies of the 19th century. There was even a warm-air heating system.
The building exemplifies the Victorian Gothic revival style of architecture, using themes and elements from 13th century Early English. The choice was influenced by the wish for a spiritual acknowledgement to Manchester's heritage in the textile trade of the Hanseatic league and also an affirmation of modernity, the fashionable gothic style being preferred over the classical architecture favoured in neighbouring Liverpool. The exterior, of spinkwell stone, is decorated with carvings of important figures in Manchester's history. The interior is made of multi-coloured terracotta by Gibbs and Canning Limited.
Construction started in 1868, at a cost of GBP one million, comprising fourteen million bricks.
The new building had been championed by radical mayor Abel Heywood and his notoriety entailed Queen Victoria's refusal to attend the opening.

The entrance overlooks Albert Square and features statues of:
In the entrance hall are statues of:


Decorating the floor of the entrance hall is a mosaic depicting the bee, the symbol of Manchester's industrial power during the 19th century. This is also carved into many of the pillars and walls about the building.



Main article:The Manchester Murals.
The hall features an organ by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll and a sequence of twelve murals by Ford Madox Brown. The murals reflect the outstanding themes of Victorian Manchester: Christianity, commerce and the textile industry. They are not true frescos but employ the Gambier Parry process. The murals are:

There is a 280-foot (85-metre) bell tower, housing a carillon of 23 bells manufactured by John Taylor Bellfounders. The clock bell, Great Abel is named for Heywood. It is inscribed with the initials AH and the Tennyson line Ring out the false, ring in the true. The clock is by Gillett and Bland (predecessor of Gillett and Johnston) and its face bears the inscription Teach us to number our Days.

Work started on an extension on 1934 and was completed in 1938. The architect was E. Vincent Harris, who had recently completed the adjacent Manchester Central Library, and it is considered by many to be his finest work. The building features stained glass windows by George Kruger Gray.


Coordinates: 53°28′45″N, 2°14′39″W
Gnaeus Julius Agricola, founder of the Roman fort of Mamuciam in year 79;
Henry III of England;
Elizabeth I of England; and
Saint George.
James Prescott Joule, by Alfred Gilbert; and
John Dalton, by Francis Legatt Chantrey.
The Romans Building a Fort at Mancenion: The building of the fort, to be found now in Manchester's Castlefield, by British slaves under Agricola.
The Baptism of Edwin: Baptism of Edwin of Northumbria at York, watched by his wife Ethelberga and family.
The Expulsion of the Danes from Manchester: A colourful depiction of the evacuation of the Danes from the town
The Establishment of Flemish Weavers in Manchester A.D. 1363: Queen Philippa of Hainault greets Flemish weavers who were invited to England under Edward III of England's act of 1337.
The Trial of Wycliffe A.D. 1377: Perhaps the most impressive of the twelve murals, John Wycliffe is depicted on trial, defended by his patron, John of Gaunt. Geoffrey Chaucer, another protegé of Gaunt's, acts as recorder.
The Proclamation regarding Weights and Measures A.D. 1556: The Burgess and others of the Town of Manchester shall send in all manner of Weights and Measures to be tried by their Majesties standard.
Crabtree watching the Transit of Venus A.D. 1639: William Crabtree, a draper who lived at Broughton, was asked by a curate friend, Jeremiah Horrocks, to observe the Transit of Venus, on November 24. Crabtree's diligence and rigour enabled him to correct Horrocks' faulty calculations and to observe the transit on December 4.
Chetham's Life's Dream A.D. 1640: Humphrey Chetham dreams of the school, Chetham's School of Music, to be established by his legacy.
Bradshaw's Defence of Manchester A.D. 1642: During the English Civil War, Manchester was laid under siege by Royalists. It was in fact John Rosworm, not Bradshaw, who defended the town.
John Kay, Inventor of the Fly Shuttle A.D. 1753: Depicts luddites destroying the shuttle mechanism while Kay is being smuggled to safety.
The Opening of the Bridgewater Canal A.D. 1761: The 3rd Earl of Bridgewater owned coal mines in Worsley , and collaborated with engineer James Brindley to build a canal to carry coal into the heart of Manchester.
Dalton collecting Marsh-Fire Gas: The seminal studies that led John Dalton to his atomic theory.
Ground-floor plan of the town hall
Town hall bells
Town hall organ
Images of England — details from listed building database (387871)

Life stages
Eastern newts are at home in both coniferous and deciduous forests. They need a moist environment with either a temporary or permanent body of water, and thrive best in a muddy environment. During the eft stage, they may travel far from their original location. Red efts may often be seen in a forest after a rainstorm. Adults prefer a muddy aquatic habitat, but will move to land during a dry spell. Eastern newts have some amount of toxins in their skin, and have brightly colored skin as efts as a warning. Even then, only 2% of larvae make it to the eft stage. Some larvae have been found in the pitchers of the carnivorous plant Sarracenia purpurea.
Eastern newts eat a variety of foods such as insects, small mollusks and crustaceans, young amphibians and frog eggs.

Captive care
The Red-spotted Newt subspecies is the State Amphibian of New Hampshire.

Part of a series on Sunni Islam
Schools of Law Hanafi • Shafi`i • Maliki • Hanbali
Deobandi • Barelwi Salafism
Beliefs Tawhid • Nabi and Rusul Kutub • Mala'ikah Qiyamah • Qadr
Rightly Guided Caliphs Abu Bakr • Umar ibn al-Khattab Uthman • Ali ibn Abi Talib
Texts Qur'an Sahih Bukhari • Sahih Muslim Al-Sunan al-Sughra Sunan Abi Dawood Sunan al-Tirmidhi Sunan ibn Maja • Al-Muwatta Sunan al-Darami This article is on an Islamic movement. For the article on the group of early Muslims, see Salaf
Salafism (Arabic: سلفي "predecessors" or "early generations"), is a generic term, depicting a Sunni Islamic school of thought that takes the pious ancestors (Salaf) of the patristic period of early Islam as exemplary models

Etymology
Just who, or what groups and movements, qualify as salafi is disputed.
Whichever definition is used, Salafis idealize an uncorrupted, pure Islamic religious community. They believe that Islam's decline after the early generations is the result of religious innovations (bid'ah) and that an Islamic revival will result through the emulation of the three early generations and the purging of foreign influences from the religion. Particular emphasis is given to monotheism - (tawhid); many Muslim practices which have now become common are condemned as polytheism (shirk). Salafis believe that widespread Muslim practices such as venerating the graves of Islamic prophets and saints to be shirk. Salafis in general are opposed to both Sufi and Shi'a doctrines, which Salafis regard as having many aspects of shirk and bid`ah.
Salafis reject dogmatic theology (kalam). They consider this to be based on classical Greek philosophy (such as Plato and Aristotle) and an import foreign to the original practice of Islam.
Salafis place great emphasis on ritual not only in prayer but in every activity in life -- many are careful to always use three fingers when eating, drink water in three pauses with the right hand while sitting and Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab in the 17th century.
Some Salafis rely on the jurisprudence of one of the four famous madh'habs. For example, Ibn Taymiya followed the Hanbali madhhab. Some of his students (such as Ibn Kathir and Al-Dhahabi) followed the Shafi madhhab. Other students (such as Ibn Abu al-Iz) follow the Hanafi madhhab. However none of the madh'habs are to be followed blindly, and in some cases Salafis may choose opinions that differ from any of them. Distinctive beliefs and practices
From the perspective of the Salafis themselves, their history starts with Muhammad himself. They consider themselves direct followers of his teachings, and wish to emulate the piety of the first three generations of Islam (the Salaf). All later scholars are merely revivers (not 'founders'). Modern scholars may only come to teach (or remind) us of the instructions of the original followers of Islam. From the perspective of some others, however, the history of Salafism started a few hundred years ago, the exact time and place still being a matter of discussion.
From a perspective widely shared by scholars of Islam, the history of Salafism started in Egypt in the mid 19th century among intellectuals at al-Azhar University, the preeminent center of Islamic learning, located in Cairo. Prominent among them were Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905), Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897) and Rashid Rida (1865-1935). Debate continues today over the appropriate method of reform, ranging from violent political Islamism to less politicized evangelism. Despite some similarities, the different modern groups that claim to be part of Salafism often strongly disapprove of each other and deny their Salafi character.

History of Salafism

Contemporary Salafis
Salafism is a movement within Sunni Islam. It includes many groups and shades of belief. It is strongest in the Middle East, but it is also found in most other Muslim-majority countries (see Islam by country and Demographics of Islam). It is increasingly important to diasporic Muslims in Europe, Canada, and the United States.
For rootless immigrants and disaffected second-generation youths in Europe, salafism provides the attraction of the authentic. For those living in the squalid metropolises of the Middle East, it offers an emotionally rich alternative to the slogans of Arab nationalism. Salafism appeals to younger Muslims as a way to differentiate themselves from their parents and grandparents because it is seen as pure, stripped of the local, superstitious, and customary usages of their families' countries of origin. It confers a sense of moral superiority. Salafism has a potent appeal because it underscores Islam's universality.

Spread and effect
Some Salafis support the government; others distance themselves from it, or oppose it.

Prominent pro-government Saudi scholars include Ibn Baz, Ibn Uthaymeen (both now deceased), Ibn Humaid, and Rabi' al-Madkhali.
Some Salafis who have been heavily influenced by the teachings of non-Salafis from outside of Saudi Arabia, such as Sayyid Qutb for instance, believe that the majority of Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia, have strayed into disbelief and that the only answer to the plight of Muslims today is Jihad against both the Muslim and non-Muslim governments alike. Osama bin Laden is a prominent example of a Salafi Saudi Muslim who has gone from supporting the Saudi regime to violently opposing it. Saudi Arabia

Notable modern Salafi scholars

• Advocate of reviving the religion as it was practiced by Muhammad


• Was given refuge and support by Muhammad bin Saud

• A prominent jurist, exegete, grammarian with a great interest in poetry

• Former Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia


• Chairman of The Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fatwa


• President and Member of the Founding Committee for the Muslim World League


• President of the higher World League Council


• President of the World Supreme Council for Mosques


• President of the Islamic Fiqh Assembly in Makkah, which is under the Muslim World League


• Member of the Higher Council of the Islamic University of Madinah


• Member of the Supreme Committee for Islamic Propagation

• Scholar of fiqh and authored over fifty books on the subject


• Professor in Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University, Al Qasim Branch.


• Member of Council of Senior Scholars

• Obtained a Ph.D. in Islamic Jurisprudence.


• Author of more than sixty published works covering Muslim Creed, Islamic Jurisprudence and Muslim's Conduct.


• Member of Council of Senior Scholars


• Member of The Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fatwa

• Current Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia


• Chairman of The Council of Senior Scholars


• Chairman of The Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fatwa

• Scholar of Hadith


• Ex Head of School of Sunnah Islamic University of Madinah


• Obtained a Master's Degree from Umm Al-Qura University

• Ex Chancellor of Islamic University of Medinah


• Teacher in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet)


• Professor in Islamic University of Madina

• One of the Imams of Masjid al-Haram


• Obtained his Master's in Islamic fundamentals from the Sharia College of Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University


• Received his Ph.D. in Islamic Sharia from Umm al-Qura University

Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703 C.E. - 1792 C.E.)
Advocate of reviving the religion as it was practiced by Muhammad
Was given refuge and support by Muhammad bin Saud
'Abd al-Rahman b. Nasir al-Sa'di (1889 C.E.- 1956 C.E.)
A prominent jurist, exegete, grammarian with a great interest in poetry
Abdul 'Azeez ibn Abdullaah ibn Baaz (1909 C.E. - 1999 C.E.)
Former Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia
Chairman of The Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fatwa
President and Member of the Founding Committee for the Muslim World League
President of the higher World League Council
President of the World Supreme Council for Mosques
President of the Islamic Fiqh Assembly in Makkah, which is under the Muslim World League
Member of the Higher Council of the Islamic University of Madinah
Member of the Supreme Committee for Islamic Propagation
Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen (1925 C.E. - 2001 C.E.)
Scholar of fiqh and authored over fifty books on the subject
Professor in Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University, Al Qasim Branch.
Member of Council of Senior Scholars
Saalih bin Al Fawzan (1935 C.E. - Present)
Obtained a Ph.D. in Islamic Jurisprudence.
Author of more than sixty published works covering Muslim Creed, Islamic Jurisprudence and Muslim's Conduct.
Member of Council of Senior Scholars
Member of The Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fatwa
Abdul-Azeez ibn Abdullaah Aal ash-Shaikh (1941 C.E. - Present)
Current Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia
Chairman of The Council of Senior Scholars
Chairman of The Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Fatwa
Rabee Al-Madkhali (1931 C.E. - Present)
Scholar of Hadith
Ex Head of School of Sunnah Islamic University of Madinah
Obtained a Master's Degree from Umm Al-Qura University
Abdul-Muhsin Al-Abbad
Ex Chancellor of Islamic University of Medinah
Teacher in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet)
Professor in Islamic University of Madina
Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais (1961 C.E. - Present)
One of the Imams of Masjid al-Haram
Obtained his Master's in Islamic fundamentals from the Sharia College of Imam Muhammad bin Saud Islamic University
Received his Ph.D. in Islamic Sharia from Umm al-Qura University Saudi Arabia

• Resided primarily in Syria and Jordan


• Specialized in the science of Hadith


• Ex Head of School of Prophetic Hadith in the Islamic University of Madinah


• Authenticated four of the Six major Hadith collections, consisting off Sunan Abi Da'ud, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Sughra, and Sunan Ibn Maja

Muhammad Naasiruddeen al-Albaanee (1914 C.E. - 1999 C.E.)
Resided primarily in Syria and Jordan
Specialized in the science of Hadith
Ex Head of School of Prophetic Hadith in the Islamic University of Madinah
Authenticated four of the Six major Hadith collections, consisting off Sunan Abi Da'ud, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Sughra, and Sunan Ibn Maja Albania

Saleem al Hilaalee (1957 C.E. - Present)
Ali Hasan al-Halabee (1960 C.E. - Present)
Mashhoor Bin Hasan Aal Salmaan (1960 C.E. - Present)
Husayn al-'Awaayishah
Muhammad Moosa Nasr (1954 C.E. - Present) Yemen

Badee'ud-Deen Shah As-Sindhee Pakistan

Older authorities accepted by modern Salafis as Salafi Imams

Imam Bukhari, Compiler of the authentic hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad known as Sahih Bukhari and Khalq Af'aal al-Ibad (The Creation of the acts of Servants) which shows the Salaf's creed regarding many issues. Greater Khorasan

Tahawi, author of Aqeedah At-Tahaweeyah
Ibn Hajar Asqalani, author of Fath al-Bari Iraq

• Author of al-Aqeedat Al-Hamawiyyah and al-Aqeedat Al-Waasittiyah which are concise explanations of the creed of Ahlus-Sunnah (People of the Sunnah)


• Scholar of fiqh, having issued many fatawa on different issues

Ibn Taymiyyah (1263 C.E. - 1328 C.E.)
Author of al-Aqeedat Al-Hamawiyyah and al-Aqeedat Al-Waasittiyah which are concise explanations of the creed of Ahlus-Sunnah (People of the Sunnah)
Scholar of fiqh, having issued many fatawa on different issues
Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292 C.E. - 1350 C.E.)
Al-Dhahabi (1274 C.E. - 1348 C.E.)

The Mensheviks (Russian: Меньшевики IPA: [mʲɪnʲʂɨˈvʲɪ'kʲi]) were a faction of the Russian revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, both members of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party. At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP in August of 1903, Lenin argued for a small party of professional revolutionaries with a large fringe of non-party sympathizers and supporters. Martov disagreed, believing it was better to have a large party of activists with broad representation. A majority of delegates agreed with Martov and formed the Mensheviks, while Lenin's faction became known as the Bolsheviks. Lenin, through a series of political maneuvers, lock-outs and the eventual storming out of the Congress by the Jewish Bund managed to secure an artificial majority within the Congress in favour of his position. The majority of the Central Committee and other central Party organs elected at the Congress supported Lenin's position, and hence Menshevik is derived from the Russian word меньшинство (menshinstvo, "minority") while Bolshevik is derived from большинство (bolshinstvo, "majority").
The split between the two factions was long standing, and had to do both with pragmatic issues based in history such as the failed revolution of 1905, and theoretical issues of class leadership, class alliances, and bourgeois democracy. Both factions believed that Russia was not developed to a point at which socialism was possible and believed that the revolution for which they fought to overthrow the Tsarist regime would be a bourgeois democratic revolution. The Bolsheviks felt that the working class should lead the revolution in an alliance with the peasantry with the aim of establishing the democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry, where the Party acts as extreme revolutionary opposition. On the other hand, the Menshevik vision was one of a bourgeois democratic revolution in which they could take part in government.

1903–17
After the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty by the February Revolution in 1917, the Menshevik leadership led by Irakli Tsereteli demanded that the government pursue a "fair peace without annexations", but in the meantime supported the war effort under the slogan of "defense of the revolution". Along with the other major Russian socialist party, the Socialist Revolutionaries (RSDLP), the Mensheviks led the emerging network of Soviets, notably the Petrograd Soviet in the capital, throughout most of 1917.
With the collapse of the monarchy, many social democrats viewed previous tactical differences between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks as a thing of the past and a number of local party organizations were merged. When Bolshevik leaders Lev Kamenev, Joseph Stalin and Matvei Muranov returned to Petrograd from Siberian exile in early March 1917 and assumed the leadership of the Bolshevik party, they began exploring the idea of a complete re-unification of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks at the national level, which Menshevik leaders were willing to consider. However, Lenin and his deputy Grigory Zinoviev returned to Russia from their Swiss exile on April 3, 1917 and re-asserted control of the Bolshevik party by late April 1917, taking it in a more radical, anti-war direction. They called for an immediate socialist revolution, which made any re-unification impossible.
In March–April 1917 the Menshevik leadership conditionally supported the newly formed liberal Russian Provisional Government. After the collapse of the first Provisional Government on May 2, 1917 over the issue of annexations, Tsereteli convinced the Mensheviks to strengthen the government for the sake of "saving the revolution" and enter a socialist-liberal coalition with Socialist Revolutionaries and liberal Constitutional Democrats, which they did on May 4, 1917 (Old Style). With Martov's return from European exile in early May, the Left wing of the party challenged the party's majority led by Tsereteli at the first post-revolurionary party conference on May 9, but the Right wing prevailed 44–11. From that point on, the Mensheviks had at least one representative in the Provisional Government until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution of 1917.
With the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks clearly diverging, Russian Mensheviks and non-factional social democrats returning from European and American exile in spring-summer of 1917 were forced to take sides. Some re-joined the Mensheviks. Some, like Alexandra Kollontai, joined the Bolsheviks directly. A significant number, including Leon Trotsky and Adolf Joffe, joined the non-factional Petrograd-based anti-war group called Mezhraiontsy, which merged with the Bolsheviks in August 1917. A small but influential group of social democrats associated with Maxim Gorky's newspaper Novaya Zhizn (New Life) refused to join either party.

1917 Revolution
The Democratic Republic of Georgia was a stronghold of the Mensheviks. In parliamentary elections held on February 14, 1919 they won 81.5% of the votes. The Menshevik leader Noe Zhordania became Prime minister.
Prominent members of Georgian Menshevik Party were Noe Ramishvili, Evgeni Gegechkori, Meliton Kartsivadze, Akaki Chkhenkeli, Nikolay Chkheidze and Alexandre Lomtatidze. After the occupation of GDR by the Bolsheviks in 1921, many Georgian Mensheviks along with their leader Noe Zordania fled to France. In Leuville-sur-Orge they acquired a small castle where the set up of Government in exile was commenced. In 1930 Noe Ramishvili, one of the leaders of Georgian Mensheviks, was assassinated by a Bolshevik spy in Paris.

After the 1917 Revolution

Bolshevik
History of the Soviet Union